Information Management and Systems

cultivation Management and SystemsIt is defined as the discipline that covers several applications including people,procedures and technologies.these a ppliocations aree jointly reffered to as data systems.Information Systems Management (ISM) are distinct from the normal remove systems in the sense that they are capable of analyzing other doledge sytems that are apllied in operational activities of an organization.It is a planned system of perfoming collection,storingand dissemination of data in the form of the necessitate study for carrying divulge necessary care functions.In the academic world the term is used to refer to,a group of gloss management methods twined to the automation of human decision making.Such systems includeExpert Systems,excecutive randomness Systems and Decicion last Systems.ISM includes the application of Information Technology in support of major functions and activities in an organization or institution.ISM supports processes ofStorage,colle ction,manipulation,utilization and distribution of study resources of an organization.Manual processes are also include in an t to each oneing system.This term is used as a synonym for selective entropy that are computer-based.Information systems will often deal with dockets such(prenominal) as use,development and management of an organizations study technology infrastructure. It includes systems that are not intended for decision makingCurrently the focus of companies has shifted from product oriented to information oriented.this means that there is more competition in process and innovation,by market operators, rather than product.There is much emphasis on the production process and track down that accompanies the process of production.One of the closely valued asset of a company is its information. This calls for a very strong information infrastructure.Therefore the study of information systems is keen on why and how technology open fire be put into excellent use in s ervice to information flow deep down an organization.A great majority of information systems are authentic for people. This peole employ the same in various areas including functional areas such ashuman resource,marketing,finance,accounting etc.ISM professionals require a strong mixture of both technical foul and occupation knowledge for them to develop an information system that meets the take of an organization. They must understand organizations objectives,its structures,operations and financial implications that are proportional to these factors.Good understanding of these factors will give the ISM professionals a good base for effective communication with users before designing systems that will support their call for.It is also a good attribute of an ISM manager or professional to be updated with the evolving information technologies.They should posses a strong foundation of technical acquirements so as to select appropriate technologies and implementation of computer based information system.OVERVIEWIn the current workplace,it is definite that technology works both effectively and reliably. ISM professionals have a key role in implementing technology within organizations.Infomation Systems Managers plan,network,and direct re re count and facilitate all computer related duties of firms.They are functional in determining both business and technical goals during consultation with the transgress management.They make detailed plans in accomplishing these goals.They give directions to other computer related workers e.g computer programmers, system analysts etc.They also aid in planning and coordinating activities exchangeable installation and upgrading of hardware and software,developing computer networks,implementation of internet and intranet sites and systems designing.They are involved with upkeep,security and mantainance of networks.They have a role in analyzing the computer and information of necessity of the organizations they work with from a strategic and operational perspective. therefore determining the longrange personnel and equipment requirements.Their duties also include assigning and reviewing their surbodinates work.They are also supposed to ensure that their organizations do not lag tin can competitors.INFORMATION NEEDSEnd users of a system have divergent information needs looking on what he/she is trying to have,why she/he is trying to find and when she/he is trying to find the information.An example is the design of a staff directory,where there is an assumption that most users will be able to perfoam know stage searching.Thet the user knows exactly what he is looking for,e.g Kerrys ph oneness number.He has necessary terms to articulate the need,e.g he knows Kerrys second name is Brown and thats what he will search under.And finally he knows that that staff directory exists and that its the right place to look.Identification of information needs is important in designing an information system and to t he provision of relative information services.For effective assignment of information needs one has to identify the different methods for gathering information on various factors influencing those needs.A selection depending on the needs of the user is necessary.A timbre by step procedure is necessary in identifying information needs of most users.a careful analysis is to be made to secern the actual needs from the data gathered. The information needs identifierwill be able to discover, as a bye product, several ideas, mechanisms, methods and techniques of satisfying the users in meeting their needs.At present,insufficient self-importance sufficiency constitutes information needs. These information needs represent vacuums in the current knowledge of the enduser. Besides the expressed or articulated needs, there exists unexpressed needs which the user is aware of but will not like to express. The other category of need is the dormant need which the user is not aware of. except t he information services provider might be able to bring to light these needs . A need is specific.It is generally era bound,either immediate or deferred.Information provided for a need will be used.Information provided may also be used or may not be used. Information needs depend onArea of interestHierarchical position of individualswork legal actionneed to take a decisionAvailability of facilities.Need to seek spick-and-span ideasMotivation factors for information needsNeed to establish priority for recovery etcInformation needs are also affected by a concoction of factors includingThe consequences of informationRange of information sources availableBackground,professional,motivational orientationUses of which information will be used.The social, political, economic, legal and regulatory systems surrounding the userInformation needs identification is also somewhat a complex process. Some of the factors rendering it complex includeOriginal documents needed by researchersIndivid ual preferences and behavioural aspects carry a further dimension.Same information is perceived differently by usersInformation is put to different usesNeed is satisfied by having access to the identified information in a particular package and form, and at a suitable timeThe flow of information and channels of communication are complex and add to the complexityThe main steps in the process of identifying information needs is shown belowStudying the theater of operations(s) of interest to the organization and or User(sStudying the physical composition and its touchStudying the immediate purlieu of the User(s)Studying the User(s)Performing a formal oppugnIdentifying and recording of the information needsAnalysing and refining the identified information needs. culture for identifying information needsA very undefined situation is faced maybe only by the information professionals. They are unable to prescribe the required information to their clientele in the way the other profe ssionals like physicians prescribe.Such prescriptions have a final say and authority, and which are embraced by the clients.Prescription is of import mainly because the clients of physicians and other professionals are seeking advice in a playing area which they themselves are ignorant of. But the clients of information professionals are more often specialists in the areas they seek information and professional advice. The main reason why there are difficulties experienced by the information professionals in distinguishing the wishes or the desires from the actual needs of the users . Therefore the information professional has to prepare himself/ herself in such a way as to create confidence in the users to the highest degree his/ her professional capabilities. It will also be important if the investigation of information needs is to be successful, it is above all good to bear in mind that the person chosen to be the information needs identifier will need to be acceptable at all levels of users and have credibility. most guidelines in the form of a step by step procedure to identify information needs is presented incorporating the steps to be taken by the information system adentifier to equip himself/ herself for this investigative work.Study of casesAn information needs identifier must study the clears of interest to the organization,users, and identify the central, peripheral and supporting areas.The result of such a study would produce a deliberatebook on the subject to guide further work of identifying the information needs. This handbook is not a technical manual for technical personnel but a handy tool for the information professional. Such a handbook would present a birds eye view of the subject giving the next Definitions of the subject concerned, collected from different authoritative sources bringing out the similarities and differences scope of the subject giving definitions and scope of divisions and subdivisions scope of the subjects that are tool subjects applicable to the subject concerned for its development and scope of the subject in terms of the areas/subjects where the subject concerned is applied for their development. The different types of classification of the subject concerned including special subject classifications, taxonomic classifications, general document classifications, and fount control tools such as thesaurus. The historical development of the subject giving the landmarks (significant contributions) under the broad divisions and subdivisions the trend of research in the subject concerned as revealed in review documents marking out the broad areas in which current researches are in throw out and the trend of education and training in the subject concerned. The important sources of information such as documentary sources , institutional sources and human sources and the information transfer process among the users of information on the subject.After carrying out such a study of subject the Inf ormation Needs Identifier becomes confident enough to continue the work of identifying the information needs as he is exposed to the technical terminology and structure of the subject.Study the organization and its environmentThis is the second step in studying the organisation and its environment and preparing a profile for the organisation. Here, it is serviceful for the information need identifier to know the type of the organisation for example, whether it is a corporate office, business or industrial enterprise and also differentiate whether it is public sector or private sector government or non government organisation, profit making or not for profit organisation, so as to identify the different types and styles of management and decision making processes which have a bearing on the information needs. As for this purpose, the information need identifier has to study the overall objectives, functions and the factors that affect the functions of the organisation concerned. Hen ce the organizations chart, the functions/ activities chart, annual reports, project reports, internal reports and other publications of the organisation would have to be examine. It will be of benefit to the information need identifier to attend special training courses/ orientation programmes usually organised for the benefit of new employees/ entrants/ management trainees by the organisation. The training courses are usually in the form of a series of lectures by senior personnel in the organisation spread over a period of three to six months. It would cover all subjects relating to the work of the organisation the rudimentary scientific and technical background and detailed aspects of the engineering and technology of production. Further the participants would be taken to the different divisions of the organisation for observation and practical knowledge of the different items of work.Further, the environment in which the organisation works and its impact would have to be anal ysed. An information need identifier may have to study the super ordinate organisation, its objectives, functions etc., forming the environment and the factors that may affect the particular organisation concerned. Incase of a national organisation, then the countrys political, social, economical and technological environment having a bearing on the organisation as well as government regulatory environment would have to be taken note of.Study of the users specific environmentAt this point, it may be necessary to define in an ordely manner, the category of users whose information needs are to be identified. The Information need identifier must get himself well inform with the department of the individual user before conducting any actual interview with the user for the identification of his/her information needs. Most of the aspects to be covered in this study areHistory of the concerned department, its objectives and functions.Organisational structure.Details of products and/ or pr ocesses of manufacture and/ or research.Details of plant, machinery, equipment, testing and other facilities.Scope of each discernible activity of the department.Information flow in the functioning of the department.Present sources of information and the channels and media used in the departments.Types of information services being used in the departments.Specific subjects on which information is being sought including type of information and kind of presentation required.Recent significant events and problems solved and the way they are solved including specific information used in solving the problems.Any other items of interest such as on going projects, training programmes etc., in the unit.Some of the sources that are to be studied for this purpose include the monthly/ quarterly/ annual reports by and on the department/ unit and its functions, minutes of meetings on and by the department/ unit, progress reports, project reports, all investigation/ review reports, performance re ports, correspondence, proposals by and on the department, records of equipment, machinery and other facilities etc. It may be necessary for the INI to spend sufficient time in the users department to understand and acquaint himself with the functional of the department, its organisational set up, the various activities etc., and thereby understand the situation in which the user is operating. This understanding will help the INI to easily correlate the users information needs in relation to his environment/ situation and enable the INI to grasp what the user is intending to communicate during any future interview with the user.Study of the userUsers often tend to class their wants/ interests into fragmented shopping lists, whereas their true needs may only be identified from a great understanding of the user as a person . Therefore,emphasis should be placed on the basic needs of the individual as person . As such, it is inhering that information need identifier should attempt t o perceive the users problems as holistically as possible. If this is acceptable, then the expression of the information need ceases to be scientifically im individualized objective entity and becomes an expression which cannot be fully communicated apart from the user.Therefore, the next step, after the study of the users environment, is to study each of the individual users. Users are individuals. Nevertheless, in designing information systems, it is useful to classify groups of users. In relation to a specific existing or planned information facility, at least four different types of users can be distinguished ..Potential user the one who needs information which might be provided by specific services of the information facility.Expected user the one who is known to have the intent of utilise certain information services (subscriber to a specific information service such as an abstracting service).Actual User the one who has actually used an information service regardless of whe ther any advantage was derived from it or not.Beneficiary the one who derives measurable advantage from information services.Turning a potential user into an actual user and into a beneficiary should of course be the civilise of planners, designers and operators of information systems.Users may be further classified into the following broad functional groups Top Management which is liable for policy making, strategic/ long range planning regarding mergers, acquisitions, capitals, new product lines.Scientists responsible for research, innovation, technical know how generation etc.Middle Management responsible for solving problems and making decisions required to fulfill the goals and implement policies set up by the top management.Supervisors responsible for ensuring that the products and services are produced on time, within the cost and quality level set.Operating Personnel / Technicians responsible for routine operations.Moreover, in an organisation setting, a user may play diff erent specific work roles in performing his duties and in carrying out his functions and responsibilities. Some of the specific roles managers play, for instance include Team drawLiaisonMonitor/ ControllerDisseminator SpokesmanTrouble shooterResource allocatorResource SeekerNegotiatorDecision Maker.Some of the communication activities of a manager and the percentage of events for each of the activities are given belowReceiving information, facts 27.8 %Receiving request for information, facts 8.0 %Receiving request for action 5.1 %Receiving request for approval 1.1 %Receiving opinion 0.7 %Receiving request for opinion 0.4 %Receiving applications for positions 0.4 %Receiving invitation 0.4 % natural endowment information, facts 12.1 %Giving opinions 0.7 %Giving instructions 0.7 %Seeking information, facts 9.2 %Requesting action 3.3 %Seeking opinion 0.4 %Checking and signing documents 6.6 %Circulating and moving documents 2.6 %Making notes and writing 1.5 %Interviewing 1.1 %Discussing interviewees 0.7 %Introducing speaker 0.4 %Participating in decision making 0.4 %Delaying response 0.4 %General discussion, meetings 12.8 %Complex events 1.8 %Others 1.5 %Further an individual may form a node in the following three directions of information flow in the organisationCommunicating down the line which is basically of five types Giving job instructions and specific task directives.Job rule information that is designed to produce understanding of the task and its relation to other organisational tasks.Information about organizational procedures and practices.Feedback to the subordinate about their performance.Indoctrination of goals information of an ideological reference work to inculcate a sense of mission.Communicating upward which may be reduced to what people sayabout themselves, their performance and their problemsabout others and their problemsabout organisational policies and practices andabout what needs to be done and how.Horizontally communicating with colle agues in the same hierarchical level.A user, in his professional capacity, is in continuous interaction withhis culture that sets values and policies, and other influences and attitude.formal organisations such as his employing organization.invisible colleges, gate keepers as a type of reference group sufficiently distinguished by its membership criteria and communication recitations to warrant separate identification.the political system that can promote or inhibit activity and information flow.the legal and economic systems that call legal and financial restraints on access to information.his work team, a sub system of the organisation that is distinguished because of interpersonal characteristics.himself, that is his cognitive system, motivations, attitudes etcformal information systems such as libraries and information centres.membership groups like professional societies that control information channelsreference group made up of individuals having similar specialisation or i nterests but who are not necessarily in the same membership groups.Users who find themselves in such complex situations may have to be studied using a combination of various direct and indirect methods.Direct methods of user study arePersonal informal contacts with the user.Observing the user art object at discussion with his colleagues mass using questionnaireDialogue with the user while rendering information services to him/herObserving the user at his work contact (office, laboratory, factory, group meeting etc.)Interviewing the user, his supervisors, his subordinates, his personal secretary/assistant or his colleagues of co ordinate status.Observing the user while using information sources and services.Observing the user while giving a lecture/demonstration etc.Indirect methods includeStudy of diary record of activities/ functions/ events maintained by the user.Study of citations authoritative by the users publicationsStudy of citations/ references given in the users publicat ionsStudy of papers, books etc., published by the userStudy of job description of the userAnalysis of users response/ feedback to information servicesAnalysis of reference queries perkd from the userStudy of documents used by the userAnalysis of the patents, designs etc., held by the userScanning correspondence and reports prepared and received by the userAdvantages of direct observation are that the information need identifier comes in direct and personal contact with the user in a dialogue, interview or discussion and that it provides an opportunity for observing the users in their normal environment. Therefore direct observation provides information on the personality and behaviour pattern of the user in different action situations. A disadvantage of the direct observation is that it so much depends on the observers own capability and adequacy in carrying out such observational studies. Inadequacies may come up in professional attainments, ability in communicating, maturity, ta ct and knowledge of and skill in carrying out an observational studies. It is also necessary to note that the inferences drawn from the observations may have incidence of subjective element of the observer.The analysis and inferences from indirect studies are based on the work done by the users which is based on serious thought on their part and is not merely some kind of off hand ad hoc statements.Therefore the records of users is adequate in providence of a more reliable indication of his/her subject interests, level of understanding, orientation, up to date in the subject and the skill to express ideas in writing for communication with peers. These studies also provide adequate time for analysis.The data collected is about a situation at a point in time and in a particular context which is to be extrapolated to a dynamic changing situation.Users are a living, developing beings, working in a system which itself is subjected to constant change.Few methods of study of users are disc ussed belowPreliminary check over of users.To begin with it is very useful to start with a survey of users.key attributes of a user may be grouped as followsSubject interestNormal field of specialisation Specific topics of interest within the field of specialisationSubjects closely related to the aboveAcademic background and orientationEducational background Professional background Background of research, developmental activity, management activity etc.Psychological attributes, particularlyTemperament Reception and communication of ideas Attitudes towards professional team mates, colleagues, etc., in the organisationAbility to express ideas preciselyAttitude to using and acquiring ability to use the tools and techniques of information servicesSpecifically the information need identifier would need information about the user relating to the following Foreign run-in competence.Types of reports both internal and external received and sent by the user Types of reports both internal an d external which the user is not receiving but would like to receiveFunctions, activities, tasks (job description) and responsibilities (specific work roles) in the organisationAuthors and Corporate Bodies, whose works are of interestEducation, training and special expertise.Membership in professional bodiesChannels of communication among the user and other departments/ personnel of the organisation Outside organisations with which the user has academic or professional contactsMembership in committees, task groupsPeriodicals and other information services received through membershipSubject and associated interests specific subjects, allied subjectsAnnual Reviews and other Series publications in which interested.Periodicals often containing articles of interest which are to be specifically notifiedKinds of information media preferred by the userTime most convenient to the user to receive information servicesPosition of the user in the organization.Types of information notices/ serv ices preferred by the userApproximate time available to the user in a day or week for readingto a fault information about the user may be obtained by a study of his/ her soak up.Information need identifier should also carryout surveys using questionnaires for collecting such preliminary information about the users. He should fill up the questionnaire himself after following the steps of studying the subject, the organization, the specific department and the resume of the user. This would show some gaps in the resume and would help concentrate on information not available from it. A shortcoming with the questionnaire method is the low return rate.Study of Work Diary maintained by the UserUsers may maintain a diary about their work for their own use. It recordsimportant activities like filing of license applications, critical events and incidentscomments on how improvement could be achieved in the organizationdiscussions/ meetings with experts and / or with colleagues, for specific problems and their solutionthe consultants/ consultancy organisations preferredmethod of solution or probable reasons for non solutionroute of search for specific information, kinds of documents/ sources/ services/ channels/ media consulted and used and their usefulnessprocedures, techniques s/he has used and/ or has planned to usedetails of projects s/he is move inworking detailsobservationscases of problems facedresults arrived atSome organisations it is mandatory that such a diary or record is maintained by each member of staff above a certain level as a part of the project routine, in a general prescribed form. Users to be studied should be asked to maintain a diary of all important events, cases of problems faced, method of solution, the specific information sources/ services/ channels/ media used and their usefulness. Also, they may be asked to record each and every event in the order of occurrence. Such a diary record, properly designed and carefully maintained can be a sour ce of useful information on the specific topics of interest to the user.The methods and techniques s/he has used or planned to use in his work the kinds of documents, information sources and services s/he uses extensively the extent of time he normally spends in reading books, articles, reports etc., in discussion with colleagues, experts and the kind of personal information services s/he prefers. Occassionally it may give some information on the persons in the organisation and outside it, with whom he usually associates himself with.Survey of information sources usedThe next step is to make a study of the different sources of information/ information services being used by the users. This aim of this study is to bring out the relevance of different types of sources/ services, the frequency of use, the availability/ accessibility of the s